Arduino microcontroller system

The configuration of Arduino microcontroller system

Arduino is a microcontroller’s development board that very famous now.. Many people search information about arduino ,arduino projects ,arduino uno ,arduino wifi ,arduino due ,arduino shields ,arduino mega ,arduino tutorial ,arduino labview or arduino motor shield. I will sharing an article about Ardino now.

Buying an Arduino
All about Arduino microcontroller system
Arduino hardware comes in many flavors. The basic Arduino as of this writing is the Uno. This model supports 13 digital input/outputs along with 6 analog inputs. It can run off of USB power or via an external “wall wart” power supply. The onboard microcontroller supports up to 32K of program code with 2K of RAM. This may not seem like a lot, but in 8-bit microcontroller terms it’s probably more than most prototypers need. The main Arduino website hosts an exhaustive list of sources at http://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Buy, or you can find it at Maker Shed, SparkFun, Adafruit, and many other online retailers.

There are plenty of other options if your project has special needs. For example, the Arduino Mega is good for very big jobs. It has 54 digital input/outputs and 16 analog inputs, along with 4 hardware serial connections. Should you want to go small, check out the Arduino Mini, which omits USB and female headers to allow a much smaller form factor, though at the expense of some prototyping ease. You’ll find plenty of Arduino clones available too, all of which are configured a little differently to suit particular needs and tastes. If you feel bewildered by the options, the Uno is a fine choice for getting started. All the examples in this book are based on it.

USB cable for programming your Arduino board
You’ll want a USB cable for programming your Arduino board. For the Uno or Mega, you need the easily obtained A-to-B-style USB cable. Radio Shack carries these and you can also find them online at places like OutletPC.com, where they often are on sale for less than $1.

Downloading the software
The Arduino is programmed using an open source application that runs on your computer. This is known as the IDE (or integrated development environment) and you can download it for free directly from the Arduino website’s software area. There are versions available for Macintosh, Windows, and Linux. Download the appropriate version for your computer. You’ll find a basic guide to getting started at http://arduino.cc/en/Guide/HomePage.

Using the Arduino IDE
The Arduino IDE is split into three areas. The blue area at the top of the window features a toolbar of buttons that control program behavior. The white area in the middle is where you enter and modify code. The black section at the bottom of the window is where status messages appear, and where you should look for error messages that can help you debug your code.

Selecting the board and port
To connect to your Arduino board, you must plug it into your computer using a USB A-to-B-style cable. Next, select the model of your Arduino board from the Board menu.
Finally, select your serial port from the Serial menu. On Windows computers, the serial port will be one of the COM ports. On Macintosh, the serial port will have a name that includes usbserial, followed by some identifying letters and numbers. Once you’ve selected your board type and port, you’re ready to do some programming!

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

There is no such thing as an absolutely accurate measurement. All measurements are approximations of the “true” value. Thus, when the accuracy of a measurement or set of measurements is stated, it is always stated in terms of inaccuracy or a range around the true measurement in which the given measurement may be found. Accuracy, precision, and resolution are terms associated with measurement. Many other terms are used to describe measurement conditions, but these three are components of every measurement, even simple measurements. As an example, consider the measurement of a simple line segment, as in Figure.

Accuracy is how closely you approximate the true value. The measurement shown in falls between 2″ and 2 ¼”. If the desired accuracy was “to the nearest inch,” then this would be an accurate estimate. However, if you wanted accuracy to 1/16″ then the ruler shown in Figure would not have the scale accuracy to measure to that degree of accuracy. You can approximate to ¼” with the given scale, but not much better than that. Trying to guess any closer to the true value would be just that, guessing.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Precision, particularly in instrumentation, means repeatability. You cannot have accuracy without precision. Repeatability means that each time you measure the same real value, you arrive within a given range around the same reading. Each time you measure Line A with the ruler in Figure, you interpolate (make an educated guess) that line A is 2 ¼” in length. Each time you make the measurement you arrive at the same conclusion (assuming you are consistent). Therefore, the precision of the scale in Figure is ¼”, that being the closest approximation you can realistically
make for this measurement.

Resolution is the smallest change (or interval) that can be measured by a particular measurement reading scale. For the ruler in Figure 2–2, the resolution depends upon the viewer’s ability to approximate a change in the two measured lines. Line A is 2 ¼”; Line B is 2 1/8″. As you can see, the difference in length is hard to determine, particularly if only one line was visible. If you add ¼” scaling marks, however, as in Figure 2–3, it is far easier to detect the small change and measure it.

By adding the ¼” scale you have improved the accuracy by making possible closer approximations of the real value. You have also improved the precision because you have improved the likelihood that the observer can make the same, more accurate reading each time. This really is a direct result of increasing the resolution of the scale.

Question: Can you have accuracy without precision?

Answer: No. Accuracy refers to how close the measurement value is to the actual value. To be accurate, each measurement of the same quantity should fall within the stated accuracy range around the true value. Since precision means the ability to obtain the same reading when measuring the same value, you must have the necessary precision (repeatability) for the accuracy of the instrument.

Question: Can you have precision without accuracy?

Answer: Yes, you may be precisely wrong. If you obtain the same measurement value each time a real value is measured, then you have a high degree of precision. Using the rule in Figure 2–3, if, for example, the scale 0 is offset from the line by ½”, then your readings may be precise, but reading the wrong value will give the wrong value each time.

Daughterboard Envelopes and Connections

The C62x McEVM’s peripheral component interconnect (PCI) interface provides plug-and-play functionality along with the ability to support high-speed target (slave) and initiator (master) modes of data transfers. The plug-and-play feature of PCI is intended to eliminate the resource conflicts associated with ISA cards that result from user configuration of addresses andinterrupts. PCI devices each provide a configuration register space within the system that can be accessed by the host prior to it being mapped into the system memory or I/O space. Access to the configuration registers is the key to PCI’s plug-and-play functionality. The PC’s BIOS executes configuration cycles after reset to identify devices on the PCI bus and to determine each of their system resource requirements, such as I/O and memory space and interrupts. PCI devices are automatically configured by the PC BIOS, to prevent system resource conflicts. The McEVM’s Windows drivers obtain information from the McEVM’s PCI controller’s configuration registers to determine where the board is located and what interrupt it uses. This allows you to simply plug the board into a PCI slot without setting any jumpers or switches.
The PCI bus operates synchronously at up to 33 MHz with a multiplexed 32-bit address/data bus. The power of PCI is its support for multiple devices to master the bus and communicate in bursts at up to 132M bytes/second (33 MHz × 4 bytes/word). A burst consists of a single 32-bit address phase, followed by sequential 32-bit data words. Only one device can be mastering the bus at any one time, but for the period that it does, it can burst data at that rate if its hardware can keep up. If it is not fast enough, a ready signal is used to throttle the transfer at the rate at which it can read or write data. Because there are typically multiple devices on the PCI bus, such as the video controller, they must all timeshare the bandwidth, so the effective transfer rate for each device is typically much lower than 132M bytes/second. The key to maximizing transfer throughput on the PCI bus is to use burst transfers when possible to avoid repetitive PCI bus arbitration and the overhead associated with singleword transfers. The PCI bridge provides a hidden central arbitration mechanism where multiple bus masters can request and be granted the bus. It also controls the length of the bursts that each device can generate. PCI transfer rates are very machine-dependent because burst transfer support varies among the various bridges used in different PCs.

Keyword : pci interface ,products ,pci express ,pci bus ,target ,pci card ,memory ,stores ,specification ,signal ,shipping ,price range ,pci interface card ,pci audio ,local bus ,interface ,transaction ,software ,signals ,pci slots ,mainland ,enclosure ,driver ,design ,connector ,cable modem ,audio interface ,analog ,altera

What’s the Electrical Current

The actual electrical flow (movement of charges) is defined as 1 coulomb past a point in 1 second and is called an “ampere” (named after André Ampère). In North America, contemporary usage shortens this term to “amp.” The symbol for current is I, which stands for intensity of electrical current. Current is measured in amperes, whose symbol is A. Stated arithmetically, if I = 5A, this means the current is 5 amps. It is important to note that time has become one of the variables now. Amperes are stated in coulombs per second. So it could be stated arithmetically as I = Q/time,
where Q is charge in coulombs, and time is in seconds.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

The pressure that causes current to flow is called electromotive force (EMF). EMF is measured in “volts,” whose symbol is V (named after Alessandro Volta). Since we need to determine (by using the volt) how much “potential” energy there is in a difference of charge, two of the terms already introduced will suffice. The joule is a basic unit of energy, the coulomb is the basic unit of charge, and since the electrical pressure is the energy in a difference of charge, it may be stated arithmetically as:

V (volts) = energy (in joules)/charge (in coulombs)

Or in words as:

a 10-volt battery means that each coulomb of charge provides 10 joules of energy (or work). By rearranging the relationship to show work (or energy), it becomes:

WORK = VOLTS × CHARGE

gps global positioning system

Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only satellite navigation system is functioning properly. This system uses 24 satellites that transmit microwave signals to Earth. This signal is received by a receiver on the surface, and is used to determine position, velocity, direction and time. Similar to the GPS system that among other things the Russian GLONASS, Galileo European Union, India IRNSS.

This system was developed by the United States Department of Defense, with his full name is NAVSTAR GPS (common mistake is that the NAVSTAR is an acronym, this is wrong, NAVSTAR is the name given by John Walsh, an important policy makers in the GPS program).  This collection of satellites maintained by the 50th Space Wing United States Air Force. This system maintenance costs of about U.S. $ 750 million per year,  including the replacement of old satellites, as well as research and development.

GPS Tracker or often called a GPS Tracking is a technology AVL (Automated Vehicle Locater) that allows users to track the position of the vehicle, or fleet car in the state of Real-Time. GPS Tracking utilizing a combination of GSM and GPS technology to determine the coordinates of an object, and then translate it in the form of digital maps.

How It Works

This system uses a number of satellites in earth orbit, which transmits its signal to Earth and was captured by a receiver.There are three important parts of these systems, namely the control, the spacecraft, and parts of the user.

Section Controls
As the name implies, this section to control. Each satellite can be a bit beyond the orbit, so that this part of the satellite orbit track, location, altitude, and speed. Extract the satellite signals received by the control section, corrected, and sent back to the satellite. Correction precise location data from the satellite ephemeris data is called, which will send it to our navigation equipment.

Aerospace Parts
This section is comprised of a collection of satellites in Earth orbit, about 12,000 miles above the earth’s surface.Collection of satellites is arranged so that the navigation tool at any time can receive signals from at least four satellites. These satellite signals can pass through clouds, glass, or plastic, but it can not pass through buildings or mountains. Satellites have atomic clocks, and will also transmit information ‘time per hour’ this. This data is transmitted with a code of ‘pseudo-random. ” Each satellite has its own code. This code number will usually be displayed on the navigation tool, then we can make the identification of the satellite signal is being received by the apparatus. This data is useful for navigation tools to measure the distance between the satellite navigation equipment, which will be used to measure the coordinates of the location. Satellite signal strength will also help in calculating tools. Signal strength is more influenced by the location of the satellite, a device will receive stronger signal from the satellite was directly above it (think satellite locations such as the position of the sun when the hours of 12 pm) compared with satellite which was in the horizon (think satellite locations such as the sunset position. There are two types of waves currently used for satellite-based navigation tools in general, the first better known as L1 at 1575.42 MHz. L1 signal is received by the navigation tool. Satellites also issued a wave at a frequency of 1227.6 MHz L2. Waves L2 is used for military purposes and not for the public.

User Section
This section consists of navigation appliance that is used. Satellites will transmit an almanac and ephemeris data to be received by the navigation equipment on a regular basis. Almanac data contains the approximate location (approximate location) satellites continuously emitted by the satellite. Ephemeris data transmitted by satellites, and is valid for approximately 4-6 hours.To show the coordinates of a point (two dimensions), navigation tools require at least three pieces of the satellite signal. To demonstrate the elevation data of a point (three dimensional), required additional satellite signals from a fruit anymore.

From the signals emitted by a collection of satellites, navigation devices will perform calculations, and the end result is the coordinate position of the tool. More and more the number of satellite signals received by an appliance, will make the tool calculates the coordinates of his position with more precision.

Because of this navigation tool relies fully on the satellite, the satellite signals are very important.This satellite-based navigation devices can not work a maximum when there is interference with satellite signals. There are many things that can reduce the strength of satellite signals:

The geographic conditions, as explained above. As long as we still can see the sky is wide enough, this tool can still be functioning. Increasingly thick forest, then petered out a signal that can be accepted. Not only when inside the building, located between two tall buildings will also cause such effects are in the valley.
Signals that bounce, ie when positioned between the tall buildings, can disrupt the navigation tools so that the calculation of the navigation device can show the wrong position or not accurate.

Keyword :
satellites ,the satellites ,signal ,receiver ,gps satellites ,gps receivers ,gps receiver ,signals ,satellite ,military ,receivers ,gps users ,gps signals ,velocity ,united states ,tracking ,timing services ,the user ,the distance ,satellite signals ,satellite constellation ,monitor ,los angeles ,ground antennas ,gps works ,gps time ,gps satellite ,gps operations ,gps navigation ,gps constellation ,global positioning system ,gadgets ,frequency ,frequencies ,factsheets ,corrections ,constellation ,clocks ,civilian ,capabilities ,atomic clocks ,altitude ,accuracy.

Optical Encoder

QR12 Optical Encoder Design Features:

1. Low profile assembled height
2. Bearing design simplifies encoder attachment
3. Resolutions up to 20,000 lines per revolution
4. 4, 6 or 8 pole commutation
5. Multiple Bolt Circle mounting
6. Through shaft sizes up to 0.375” (10mm) Diameter
7. High Noise Immunity
8. Cost Competitive with Modular Encoders
9. 500 kHz Frequency Response
10. RoHS Construction

Quantum Devices, Inc. Model QR12 provides an improved feedback solution in applications typically using
modular encoders. With an over all height of less than one inch and the stability of a bearing encoder design,
the model QR12 can provide significant performance upgrades in applications limited by traditional modular
encoder solutions. Outputs consist of a quadrature with index pulse and three-phase commutation. A flexible
member allows for much greater tail shaft run out and TIR than can be tolerated by modular encoder designs,
plus it provides 30 degrees of rotation for commutation timing.

SIZE 15 RESOLVER MOUNTS

Utilize the optional resolver mount adapters to mate the QR12 – 1.280” Flex mount option to Size 15 Pancake
Resolver motor configurations. Eliminate the expensive mounting servo clamps by attaching either the two or
three point adapters directly to the servo clamp holes. Assemble the QR12 to the adapter plate using (2) 4-40
screws. For jam nut attachment to threaded motor shafts, refer to JR12 Jam Nut Mount Optical Encoder
Literature.

ENCODER INSTALLTION INSTRUCTIONS

1. Using two fingers slide the encoder onto shaft.
2. For additional security, Loctite can be applied to the encoder hub set screws. Remove the encoder’s set
screws and using tip of toothpick apply appropriate amount of Loctite thread locking adhesive. A non-
permanent adhesive is recommended.
3. Insert and tighten encoder set screws using a .050” hex wrench. Typical torque range of 50 to 80 oz-in.
4. Fixture the stainless steel flex mount to the mounting surface with #6-32 button head screws.

For brushless motors requiring commutation timing:
· Encoder drawings indicate position of encoder hub to encoder body at Z (index). Rotating the hub to this
position allows for known U channel transition state (prior to step one above).
· Powering appropriate motor windings allow for locking motor shaft location to match the appropriate U
transition (prior to step one above).
· While mechanically back driving the motor, monitor motor winding EMF position to the powered encoder
position. Rotate the encoder stainless steel flex mount to achieve accurate timing of encoder commutation
feedback channels to the appropriate motor winding EMF. Tighten the screws retaining the encoder
stainless steel flex mounts.

different electrically charge

ELECTRICAL UNITS
We have discussed the big picture, so now some of the fine details must be explained. We will use standard units of measurement so that independent measurements can be related and have the same meaning.Three of these units are in common use: the volt, which is a measure of the electrical pressure; the amp, a measure of electrical current; and the ohm, a measure of electrical resistance. The following terms are the foundation of any electric study.

JOULE
The basic unit of energy is the “joule,” whose symbol is J. This is a very small unit of energy; several hundred thousand joules are required just to operate an incandescent lamp over an hour or so. Note that the energy required to do work and the amount of work performed is one and the same. If it takes 250,000 joules an hour to power an incandescent lamp, then the energy required was 250,000 joules an hour, and the work performed was 250,000 joules an hour. If all this energy were converted into light, the lamp would be 100 percent efficient. It is not, however, so the total energy required is the work required to light the lamp plus the work wasted (usually as heat).

COULOMB
The basic unit of electrical charge is the “coulomb,” whose symbol is C. A coulomb is defined as a number of electrons. The electron is an entity that has one negative charge, the smallest amount of charge measurable. Theoretically, this amount of charge is indivisible. In other words, there are no half electron charges (actually, there are theorized partial charges in modern atomic physics, but the electron is the smallest negative charge for our purposes). A coulomb is the amount of charge represented by 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. Though this may seem a large number, it is not, as electrons, along with their charge, are really quite small.

CHARGE
Charge (symbol Q) is measured in coulombs. Stated arithmetically, for example, if Q = 15C, this means the amount of charge is 15 coulombs (don’t even think of doing it in electrons).

As stated before, an ideal differential amplifier only amplifies the voltage difference between its two inputs. If the two inputs of a differential amplifier were to be shorted together (thus ensuring zero potential difference between them), there should be no change in output voltage for any amount of voltage applied between those two shorted inputs and ground:

Voltage that is common between either of the inputs and ground, as “V_common-mode” is in this case, is called common-mode voltage. As we vary this common voltage, the perfect differential amplifier’s output voltage should hold absolutely steady (no change in output for any arbitrary change in common-mode input). This translates to a common-mode voltage gain of zero.

The operational amplifier, being a differential amplifier with high differential gain, would ideally have zero common-mode gain as well. In real life, however, this is not easily attained. Thus, common-mode voltages will invariably have some effect on the op-amp’s output voltage.

The performance of a real op-amp in this regard is most commonly measured in terms of its differential voltage gain (how much it amplifies the difference between two input voltages) versus its common-mode voltage gain (how much it amplifies a common-mode voltage). The ratio of the former to the latter is called the common-mode rejection ratio, abbreviated as CMRR:

An ideal op-amp, with zero common-mode gain would have an infinite CMRR. Real op-amps have high CMRRs, the ubiquitous 741 having something around 70 dB, which works out to a little over 3,000 in terms of a ratio.

Because the common mode rejection ratio in a typical op-amp is so high, common-mode gain is usually not a great concern in circuits where the op-amp is being used with negative feedback. If the common-mode input voltage of an amplifier circuit were to suddenly change, thus producing a corresponding change in the output due to common-mode gain, that change in output would be quickly corrected as negative feedback and differential gain (being much greater than common-mode gain) worked to bring the system back to equilibrium. Sure enough, a change might be seen at the output, but it would be a lot smaller than what you might expect.

A consideration to keep in mind, though, is common-mode gain in differential op-amp circuits such as instrumentation amplifiers. Outside of the op-amp’s sealed package and extremely high differential gain, we may find common-mode gain introduced by an imbalance of resistor values. To demonstrate this, we’ll run a SPICE analysis on an instrumentation amplifier with inputs shorted together (no differential voltage), imposing a common-mode voltage to see what happens. First, we’ll run the analysis showing the output voltage of a perfectly balanced circuit. We should expect to see no change in output voltage as the common-mode voltage changes:

instrumentation amplifier
v1 1 0
rin1 1 0 9e12
rjump 1 4 1e-12
rin2 4 0 9e12
e1 3 0 1 2 999k
e2 6 0 4 5 999k
e3 9 0 8 7 999k
rload 9 0 10k
r1 2 3 10k
rgain 2 5 10k
r2 5 6 10k
r3 3 7 10k
r4 7 9 10k
r5 6 8 10k
r6 8 0 10k
.dc v1 0 10 1
.print dc v(9)
.end

v1            v(9)
0.000E+00     0.000E+00
1.000E+00     1.355E-16
2.000E+00     2.710E-16
3.000E+00     0.000E+00   As you can see, the output voltage v(9)
4.000E+00     5.421E-16   hardly changes at all for a common-mode
5.000E+00     0.000E+00   input voltage (v1) that sweeps from 0
6.000E+00     0.000E+00   to 10 volts.
7.000E+00     0.000E+00
8.000E+00     1.084E-15
9.000E+00    -1.084E-15
1.000E+01     0.000E+00

Aside from very small deviations (actually due to quirks of SPICE rather than real behavior of the circuit), the output remains stable where it should be: at 0 volts, with zero input voltage differential. However, let’s introduce a resistor imbalance in the circuit, increasing the value of R₅ from 10,000 ? to 10,500 ?, and see what happens (the netlist has been omitted for brevity — the only thing altered is the value of R₅):

v1           v(9)
0.000E+00     0.000E+00
1.000E+00    -2.439E-02
2.000E+00    -4.878E-02
3.000E+00    -7.317E-02   This time we see a significant variation
4.000E+00    -9.756E-02   (from 0 to 0.2439 volts) in output voltage
5.000E+00    -1.220E-01   as the common-mode input voltage sweeps
6.000E+00    -1.463E-01   from 0 to 10 volts as it did before.
7.000E+00    -1.707E-01
8.000E+00    -1.951E-01
9.000E+00    -2.195E-01
1.000E+01    -2.439E-01

Our input voltage differential is still zero volts, yet the output voltage changes significantly as the common-mode voltage is changed. This is indicative of a common-mode gain, something we’re trying to avoid. More than that, its a common-mode gain of our own making, having nothing to do with imperfections in the op-amps themselves. With a much-tempered differential gain (actually equal to 3 in this particular circuit) and no negative feedback outside the circuit, this common-mode gain will go unchecked in an instrument signal application.

There is only one way to correct this common-mode gain, and that is to balance all the resistor values. When designing an instrumentation amplifier from discrete components (rather than purchasing one in an integrated package), it is wise to provide some means of making fine adjustments to at least one of the four resistors connected to the final op-amp to be able to “trim away” any such common-mode gain. Providing the means to “trim” the resistor network has additional benefits as well. Suppose that all resistor values are exactly as they should be, but a common-mode gain exists due to an imperfection in one of the op-amps. With the adjustment provision, the resistance could be trimmed to compensate for this unwanted gain.

One quirk of some op-amp models is that of output latch-up, usually caused by the common-mode input voltage exceeding allowable limits. If the common-mode voltage falls outside of the manufacturer’s specified limits, the output may suddenly “latch” in the high mode (saturate at full output voltage). In JFET-input operational amplifiers, latch-up may occur if the common-mode input voltage approaches too closely to the negative power supply rail voltage. On the TL082 op-amp, for example, this occurs when the common-mode input voltage comes within about 0.7 volts of the negative power supply rail voltage. Such a situation may easily occur in a single-supply circuit, where the negative power supply rail is ground (0 volts), and the input signal is free to swing to 0 volts.

Latch-up may also be triggered by the common-mode input voltage exceeding power supply rail voltages, negative or positive. As a rule, you should never allow either input voltage to rise above the positive power supply rail voltage, or sink below the negative power supply rail voltage, even if the op-amp in question is protected against latch-up (as are the 741 and 1458 op-amp models). At the very least, the op-amp’s behavior may become unpredictable. At worst, the kind of latch-up triggered by input voltages exceeding power supply voltages may be destructive to the op-amp.

While this problem may seem easy to avoid, its possibility is more likely than you might think. Consider the case of an operational amplifier circuit during power-up. If the circuit receives full input signal voltage before its own power supply has had time enough to charge the filter capacitors, the common-mode input voltage may easily exceed the power supply rail voltages for a short time. If the op-amp receives signal voltage from a circuit supplied by a different power source, and its own power source fails, the signal voltage(s) may exceed the power supply rail voltages for an indefinite amount of time!

Wayne Little (June 2007): Author, “Input to output phase shift” subsection, in “Practical considerations” section.

“Radiant” heat relates to one of three of the most prevalent means that heat is transferred. Radiant heat is long wave infrared energy radiated from any “hot body” to any “cooler body” within sight. In other words if you’re in the sun you’ll feel warmer than if you’re in the shade. If you can see a wood stove you’ll be warmer than if you are around the corner from it. This is the concept that makes radiant foor
heat so comfortable, you’re almost always “insight” of your foor and therefore warm. An added beneft is that not all the energy from a radiant foor is from radiant heat, only most of it, that’s why it catego-
rized as radiant. Conductive and convective heat are also ontributors to heating with radiant heating systems and since they emanate from your foor, which is otherwise often cool, it makes for a more
comfortable, even heat distribution. Warm feet help make warm homes. Hydronic Radiant Floor Heating is in the family of Hydronic Heating which includes hydronic base- boards, radiators, fan convectors as well as radiant walls and ceilings. All these are tied together by the fact that the system relies upon a transfer medium of water or a water based fuid and tubing that acts to distribute the fuid to the heat emitters. Hydronic heating has several advantages over other radiant heat sources. Other radiant heat sources such as stoves might be fueled by natural gas, propane, wood fred and electricity can be used for cable style radiant foor heating. All have their application yet what makes water based Hydronic systems advantageous is that they emit their energy independent of heat
source. In fact any of the above heat sources as well as just about any others, may be used in conjunc- tion with hydronic radiant heating systems. The water distributes the heat energy; the heat energy can be gotten from any source. At any time in the future, due to energy supply or energy cost issues, a hydronic systems heat source can be switched to a more affordable or environmentally benign source. The only partial exception to this general statement is that if the system is not well designed from the start it might have some potential for fuel switching but not as much as needed for a complete switch. Careful attention should be given to the homes insulation details, especially as it pertains to the foor (an integral part of the heating system with radiant foor), and the tubing detail chosen.
It is best if the area used for foor heating be completely isolated from outdoor temperatures and ground connection. This insulation detail varies depending upon if the foor is a frame foor or slab on grade.
This detail should be thoroughly understood and discussed with your architect, contractor, and insulation contractor before contracts are signed. It will probably not be possible to change this detail once it’s
done in many instances (concrete pour for example).
As important as the insulation, is the tubing detail chosen. There are budget “high temperature” tubing applications and there are more expensive (initially) low temperature tubing details that allow you to
switch heat source to a more effcient low temperature heat source at a future date. These tubing details are as fxed as stone (or concrete in some cases) once you choose and the detail is built. One exception
is that if advanced framing and super insulation methods are chosen for the shell of the building lower temperature water can be used in what are typically high temperature tubing details. Why? A super
insulated shell does not have nearly the heat loss of a structure that is built “only to code”.
Radiant Floor Heating systems can be very effcient but regardless of whether a radiant or forced air system is installed it comes down to the design of the house (size included) and it’s load, the builder and
their energy detailing, and the heat source chosen. If possible passive solar methods should be included in the design of any house. Utilization of these methods can reduce your annual energy budget, make your house more comfortable in winter and summer, and even ensure you some energy comfort security if the power goes out for more than a short period of time. There are architects and builders that specialize in these designs that can be found either through contacting the Oregon Department of Energy or a local Utility with energy savvy. Many architects and builders, while not being experts are willing to learn these methods and so are well worth dialoguing with. Make a sensible design your frst choice. These next four are more detailed hardware type choices.
Four primary choices need to be made when deciding to go radiant on your new or existing home. Previous to these decisions a heat loss analysis of your building should be performed by a professional
so that the heat output of the design to be installed is suffcient to offset the heating loads of the building and it’s individual rooms loads at outside design temperatures for your region with consideration for
your foor covering choices and micro climate (north side, windy butte, etc.).
Tubing detail is typically the frst since a home needs to be built with a foor early on and a rough-in is typically necessary. Besides the cost of installation, perhaps a more important aspect of tubing detail
choice is that of how it affects water temperature, and the subsequent choice and cost of running your heat source. Initial purchase price is only part of the picture. Long term energy costs are what really add up. Tubing detail is the single most important choice because it may not ever be able to be changed. Heat sources and zoning can be changed later. Floor tubing is typically run with ½” pex tubing (with or without oxygen barrier) on 6-12” centers for
residential applications. The foor loops should not exceed 300’ and should contain no kinks, be adjacent to any sharp rebar, etc. in the feld, or be left exposed to UV for long periods of time. In the case
of an existing house, it already has a foor and so the tubing details are limited by the existing structure. Commercial tubing details vary and should be obtained from a reputable hydronic designer or supplier
before beginning the job. Tubing can be run in a preplanned slab on grade with good insulation details on the perimeter and in the
feld. Tubing is run from a manifold and tied to rebar at intervals of 24-30” to insure it doesn’t rise up at the time of the pour. It can also be run over a sub foor and stapled down on appropriate centers accord
ing to the plan. Either concrete or “Gypcrete” can be used in a thin slab application for conductive and mass benefts.
Other above foor tubing details include a variety of approaches that include the use of aluminum as an effective conductor of heat similar to the attributes of concrete. These include aluminum sheet products
(bought or home built), and a variety of “climate panels” that are manufactured as laminates with a layer of aluminum incorporated to created a conductive sheet of heat. Under foor the approaches include bare tubing and some aluminum fn applications that can preserve the conductive advantages even though they are under foor.
Zoning, while related to tubing is a distinctly different choice. Often with simpler designs with two broad functions, the sleeping area and the living area, two zones can be adequate for good thermal com-
fort. With a simple rectangular design of homogeneous heat loss characteristics, simple zoning can suc- ceed. The presence of large expanses of windows, auxiliary heat sources located adjacent to only part of the living space, “pop outs” that have more wall surface area exposed to the outside temperatures (like a thumb of a mitten), can cause problems unless they are zoned separately. For every zone a thermostat is necessary to control it. The thermostat acts as a set point control (the desired room temperature) and sends a “call for heat” message to the zone control to activate the circulation pump and heat source to allow for the delivery of heat. Excessive zoning can be expensive so it can be helpful to consider this in the initial design and layout of the house. Heat Sources have implications for energy source choice, effciency and durability. Water heaters can
be used effectively as a budget source but it might be wise to upgrade them to more effcient or durable heat sources as budget allows. Sometimes heat sources choices are constrained by location. The most common is that natural gas is not available in the country. Other constraints are based on size of heat load and tubing detail chosen. If a budget high temperature tubing detail is chosen then the easiest ft is
a high temperature heat source. This typically means an electrical resistance heat source such as a water heater or an electric boiler. Almost all gas water heating appliances, whether water heater or boiler, are capable of reaching high enough temperatures for any foor tubing detail. Likewise oil, propane, and wood, all combustion based heat sources can reach these higher temperatures easily. Our Pacifc North- west micro-climate, while furnishing plenty of direct sunlight for six months of the year for year around loads, supplies much less during the space heating season. Heat pumps are able to make use of the
ambient energy in the air and ground by upgrading the temperatures for utilization in heating systems.
Heat pumps, whether air source or ground source and direct solar sources work best if coupled with low temperature tubing details. Heat pumps have the lowest long term operating costs, unless of course your wood is “free”. Lowest operating cost is also usually linked to lowest environmental impact. Of course regional cost of energy can have signifcant impact on the operating cost of your system and should not be ignored. In the Pacifc Northwest the cost of electricity is currently affordable even if used as electric resistance heating. Other parts of the country have electric rates that are double our rates.

Keyword :
radiant heat ,radiant heating ,radiant floor heating ,radiant floor heat ,underfloor heating ,tubing ,radiant floor ,radiant ,insulation ,how to ,heating systems ,heating system ,warmth ,speedheat ,radiant heating systems ,radiant heating system ,radiant heat floor ,radiant floor heating system ,products ,product ,pex tubing ,manifold ,homeowners ,heaters ,heater ,heat transfer ,heat system ,water temperature ,warm water ,renovation ,radiant panel ,radiant heat systems ,radiant floors ,radiant floor heating systems ,radiant barrier ,project ,panels ,hydronic systems ,hydronic ,heating and cooling ,heat source ,heat loss ,heat energy ,forced air ,floors ,flooring ,floor warming ,floor surface ,floor heating ,floor heat ,floor covering ,energy efficient ,energy ,electric radiant heat ,electric radiant floor heating ,electric boiler ,design ,contractor ,concrete slab ,concrete ,carpet ,boiler ,basement

The study of electricity and electronics is the study of the electron and proton, the fields surrounding them, and how we affect their behavior. The electron and proton are both charged particles, since they carry an electric charge.
The electron is the key player in most electronics studies, since in metals it is the electron that moves around. A charged particle at rest has an electrical field around it, radiating into space. A charged particle in motion generates a magnetic field. These fields are normally studied together as the electromagnetic field, since they are parts of the same thing.
Electronics are the nervous system of the robot, replacing the mechanical gears and cams of the automata with wire and whizzing electrons. This chapter introduces you to the electrical and magnetic forces that are used in electronics. We’ll try to keep it short and painless.
Everything is composed of atoms, which are little specks of matter. Atoms
are themselves composed of a heavy core of neutrons and protons surrounded
by a whirling cloud of lightweight electrons. And that is all a lie.
In the early days, mankind looked around and saw that the world was
made up of hundreds, thousands!, of things. Rock and sand and water and
mildew and hair and skin and bugs and teeth and metal and wood and bark
and leaves and fire—so many things! And of course, we gave everything
names and thought up stories as to why these things were here and what they
were for.
At some point, philosophers and magicians and alchemists got to thinking
about these things. What is wood made out of? What if we took a piece of
wood and chopped it into smaller and smaller pieces until we had the smallest
possible piece of wood? Is that piece still wood? What does it mean to be
‘‘wood’’?
At a later point in time, European alchemists would have said that the
smallest pieces of everything were composed of the four elements Earth,
Air, Fire, and Water. From China, the answer was more likely to be the five
elements Water, Fire, Metal, Earth, and Wood.
A more detailed response says that the fundamental piece is the atom,
which is simply Greek for ‘‘can’t be cut,’’ and that there are a bunch of
different types of atoms. These atoms can be assembled into molecules, which in turn are the building blocks of our daily ‘‘stuff.’’ Chemistry comes to the front line now and defines the behavior of the various atoms and molecules.
We ultimately identified 116 atomic elements and organized them in the
periodic table of elements according to their weights and behaviors. Briefly, in 1999, Berkeley Lab scientists thought they had found element number 118, but later retracted this claim. Elements 113, 115, and 117 are implied by the table but at this time remain undiscovered. At the atomic level, all matter is built up out of these elements and their variations.
Life was good. We had atoms and we had mysterious ‘‘forces’’ like gravity and electromagnetism to keep things in place. Looking deeper, we were able to pry the atom apart into three pieces. Almost all of the atom’s mass came from the heavy particles called neutrons and protons. Neutrons are neutral, in that they do not have any electromagnetic charge. Protons, however, have a positive charge. The neutrons and protons are bound together in the center,
or nucleus, of the atom.
Whizzing around this nucleus is an array of lightweight electrons. One
electron has a negative charge equal to one proton, but it takes about 1,800 electrons to make up the mass of a single proton. Early models of
electrons showed them in orbits like planets, though later models assign the electrons to mathematical clouds of probability around the nucleus.
The negative charge of the electron is strongly attracted to the positive charge of the proton. Electrons, however, repel other electrons and protons repel other protons. The protons are kept in the nucleus by even stronger forces, but these stronger forces don’t leak out so we can ignore them from here on.
There were still questions. There always are. What keeps the electron from collapsing into the nucleus? How do the charges really work? As we dig deeper, our simple atomic model turns into the complex quantum model with its dozens of flavors of quarks and leptons with their colors and flavors and favorite movies.
And the harder we dig trying to make sense of gravity and electromagnetism, the farther the answer slips away. Now we are looking at eleven dimensional universes composed of ethereal strings. Or maybe it’s something else now. We keep looking.
I suspect that, once all is said and done, it will become simple again.
But for now, if you want to understand how matter works on a basic level, you must be prepared to have your mind bent.
We, however, are just trying to build robots. So we work with the lie, the convenient simplification. The atomic model of electrons, protons, and neutrons as held together by gravity and electromagnetism.

Switch type

An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the °ow of electrons in a circuit. Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on (“closed”) or completely or (“open”). There are many diferent types of switches, and we will explore some of these types in this chapter. Though it may seem strange to cover this elementary electrical topic at such a late stage in this book series, I do so because the chapters that follow explore an older realm of digital technology based on mechanical switch contacts rather than solid-state gate circuits, and a thorough understanding of
switch types is necessary for the undertaking. Learning the function of switch-based circuits at the same time that you learn about solid-state logic gates makes both topics easier to grasp, and sets
the stage for an enhanced learning experience in Boolean algebra, the mathematics behind digital logic circuits. The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are brought in contact with
each other by the motion of an actuating mechanism. Other switches are more complex, containing electronic circuits able to turn on or depending on some physical stimulus (such as light or magnetic ¯eld) sensed. In any case, the ¯nal output of any switch will be (at least) a pair of wire-connection terminals that will either be connected together by the switch’s internal contact mechanism (“closed”), or not connected together (“open”). Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand switch, and they are manufactured in several varieties:

Toggle switch
Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more positions. The common light switch used in household wiring is an example of a toggle switch. Most toggle switches will come to rest in any of their lever positions, while others have an internal spring mechanism returning the lever to a certain normal position, allowing for what is called “momentary” operation.

Pushbutton switch
Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that is pressed and released. Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring mechanism returning the button to its “out,” or
“unpressed,” position, for momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches will latch alternately on or with every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in their “in,” or “pressed,”
position until the button is pulled back out. This last type of pushbutton switches usually have a mushroom-shaped button for easy push-pull action.

Selector switch
Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to select one of two or more positions. Like the toggle switch, selector switches can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring-return mechanisms for momentary operation.

Joystick switch
A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed. The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol represents the direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control. Some switches are speci¯cally designed to be operated by the motion of a machine rather than by the hand of a human operator. These motion-operated switches are commonly called limit switches, because they are often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning the actuating power to a component if it moves too far.